Social wasps make up a significant part to the diversity of the Hymenoptera order, one of the most varied insect groups. Beyond their ecological importance, these insects use their venom for defense, protecting their colonies. The venom of social wasps are rich in biologically active substances, including biogenic amines, peptides, proteins, enzymes, allergens, and volatile compounds. These substances can trigger various immune responses, such as allergic reactions and inflammation, and certain peptides demonstrate antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, anticoagulant, and anticancer properties. However, the limited availability of venom and the lack of studies of function for its bioactive compounds remain challenges to its effective utilization. This review compiles 124 peptides isolated from social wasps, highlighting their relevance in biotechnology and medicine, while also discussing their limitations and potential applications. These peptides were isolated from 39 species of social wasps worldwide, underscoring the potential of these insects' venom as a promising source for developing new pharmaceutical products and as a catalyst for drug discovery. Additionally, this work emphasizes a significant gap in research on social wasps collected in the Brazilian Amazon.
Throughout evolution, certain animals have developed the ability to produce a range of biologically active substances, including poisons and venoms. These substances serve as crucial strategies for capturing prey and defending against predators. The ecological advantages gained through the acquisition of venom are clearly evident, supported by a wide variety of animals that have evolved venoms for purposes such as predation, defense, or deterring competitors (Palma and Kastin, 2006; King, 2011). In modern times, animal venoms have gained recognition as a significant source of biologically active molecules, although the majority of these components, particularly peptides, remain largely unexplored (Pimenta and Lima, 2005).
One group that produces these venoms belongs to the Phylum Arthropoda, primarily due to its sheer abundance in species and biomass, constituting approximately 70% of the planet's species. Among these, the class Insecta stands out for its remarkable diversity, surpassing all other terrestrial animals described to date. Within the class Insecta, the order Hymenoptera emerges as one of the most diverse, boasting approximately 150,000 described species (Aguiar et al., 2013). These insects play integral roles in the functioning of nearly all terrestrial ecosystems and are commonly recognized as wasps, bees, and ants (Lasalle and Gauld, 1993).
Hymenoptera consists of 21 superfamilies, and venom glands likely evolved before the emergence of Aculeata, with their initial function not necessarily being defensive (Peters et al., 2017). However, in certain groups within Vespoidea and Apoidea, venom has primarily evolved as a mechanism for colony defense. Social wasps exhibit distinctive nest defense behaviors, often launching attacks on intruders by delivering multiple stings and injecting venom, which can result in significant cases of envenomation (Edery et al.; Fitzgerald et al., 2006). Research on the behavior of social wasps, including species from the genera Polistes, Mischocyttarus, and Agelaia, has revealed that their venom contains volatile compounds associated with colony defense, serving as alarm pheromones (Bruschini et al., 2006).
Social wasps use their venom to defend themselves and their colonies from enemies and predators. Stings from these venoms cause local pain, tissue damage, and, in some cases, death in large vertebrates, including humans. The chemical composition of these venoms has been well documented for many years: biogenic amines, peptides, and proteins work together to produce toxic and biological effects (Nakajima and Piek, 1986; Banks and Shipolini, 1986). The venom of social wasps consists of a complex mixture of proteins, peptides, and low molecular mass compounds. The enzymes in the venom are responsible for the tissue damage and are often immunogenic, contributing to the allergic reactions experienced by victims of wasp stings (Esher et al., 2001; Yee et al., 1977). The most abundant components of social wasp venom are peptide toxins.
The venom of hymenopterans, particularly wasps and bees, is composed of a variety of peptides, proteins, and low molecular weight substances, such as amino acids and biogenic amines. Among the identified biogenic amines are acetylcholine, histamine, serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline. These amines play different roles in the biological effects of the venom: histamine causes local vasodilation, serotonin increases cellular permeability to potentiate the venom's effects, and
Venoms from social wasps contain a variety of polycationic amphipathic peptides with multifunctional pharmacological actions, often triggering intense inflammatory processes (Palma and Kastin, 2006). The main peptides are.
These are the most abundant peptides in wasp venoms, and it is noteworthy that mastoparans have only been found in the Vespidae family so far, encompassing both social and solitary wasps. (Lee et al., 2016). These peptides, consisting of 10–14 amidated amino acid residues (Table 1), interact with cell membranes and can cause cell lysis (Nakajima and Piek, 1986; Mendes et al., 2004a; Argiolas and Pisano, 1983) or activate G protein receptors (Argiolas and Pisano, 1984a), which trigger secretions
Most studies focus on identifying toxins and peptides using proteomic and transcriptomic techniques (Mendes et al., 2005), but functional investigations linking these compounds to specific physiological and pharmacological mechanisms are scarce. For example, some wasp venom peptides, such as mastoparans, show promising antimicrobial properties (Chen et al., 2018; Rangel et al., 2011), yet studies have advanced to clinical trials or drug development. Obtaining samples is also challenging because
The present study compiles information on 124 different peptides identified from social wasp venom to date. Among these peptides, 47 are mastoparans, 24 are chemotactic peptides, 28 are kinins, two are neurotoxins, and 23 have yet to have well-established biological properties, although structurally some resemble the aforementioned categories.
There is still a lot to be discovered in this area and its biotechnological importance is extreme. Research on social wasp venoms has advanced
Samanta Brito: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Matheus Nolasco Ribeiro Alves: Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis, Data curation. Alexandre Somavilla: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Funding acquisition.
This is a review article based solely on previously published literature. No experiments involving human beings or animals were conducted by the authors; therefore, ethical approval is not applicable.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
This study was financed in part by the Coodenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001. The authors also thank the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) and the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Amazonas (FAPEAM) for their financial support and research encouragement, process number 01.02.016301.03326/2021-65 CT&I ÁREAS PRIORITÁ RIAS - FAPEAM.
